Futurist Predictions in the World of Technology

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Futurists can dish out some exciting and downright scary visions for the future of machines and science that either enhance or replace activities and products near and dear to us.




Being beamed from one location to another by telportation was supposed to be right around the corner/in our lifetime/just decades away, but it hasn't become possible yet. Inventions like the VCR that were once high tech -- and now aren't -- proved challenging for some: The VCR became obsolete before many of us learned how to program one. And who knew that working with atoms and molecules would become the future of technology? The futurists, of course.
Forecasting the future of technology is for dreamers who hope to innovate better tools -- and for the mainstream people who hope to benefit from the new and improved. Many inventions are born in the lab and never make it into the consumer market, while others evolve beyond the pace of putting good regulations on their use.
Next, we'll take a look at some sound-loving atoms, tiny tools for molecules, huge bunches of data and some disgruntled bands of people who may want to set all of this innovation back with the stroke of a keyboard.

Neurohacking


Will there be a day when you say "I can't read your mind, you know!" and the reply will be "Oh, stop it -- of course you can!"? It could happen. Neuro scientists are finding ways to read people's minds with machines, and although this has been in the works for decades, real progress is being made by researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, and elsewhere. Translating electrical activity from the brain by means of decoding brainwaves is one way to help sufferers of dementia, for example, who have complications with neurotransmitters relaying thoughts into comprehensible speech or holding thoughts long enough to get them out verbally before they're forgotten.

On the other hand, it is more than a little frightening to know that science and machines could soon have access to our innermost thoughts. Implications for neurohacking into people's thoughts have also been studied in relation to neuromarketing, which targets people's brains by manipulating their wants and desires through marketing and advertising. Our thoughts and actions could actually be hijacked by a form of media that makes us think we're getting what we want, when really, we're going for something our brains may only think is supposed to be good.

Creativity in Picture......!

The creativity in the picture is depend on the nature of seeing the pictures an imaging such things to them. It is of picture of full of imagination in the seen of a real picture by little more changes.

Router

Router (computing):
A router is a networking device, commonly specialized hardware, that forwards data packets between computer networks. This creates an overlay inter network, as a router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in one of the lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. Routers perform the "traffic directing" functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that constitute the inter network until it reaches its destination node.

The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers that simply pass data, such as web pages, email, IM, and videos between the home computers and the Internet. An example of a router would be the owner's cable or DSL router, which connects to the Internet through an ISP. More sophisticated routers, such as enterprise routers, connect large business or ISP networks up to the powerful core routers that forward data at high speed along the optical fiber lines of the Internet backbone. Though routers are typically dedicated hardware devices, use of software-based routers has grown increasingly common.

Routing is often confused with bridging, which performs a similar function. The principal difference between the two is that bridging occurs at a lower level and is therefore more of a hardware function whereas routing occurs at a higher level where the software component is more important. And because routing occurs at a higher level, it can perform more complex analysis to determine the optimal path for the packet.

Types of Routing Protocols 

Table 3-1 showed how routing protocols can be classified according to various characteristics. This section gives an overview of the most common IP routing protocols. Most of these routing protocols will be examined in detail in other chapters. For now, this section gives a very brief overview of each protocol.

Classifying Routing Protocols 

Routing protocols can be classified into different groups according to their characteristics. Specifically, routing protocols can be classified by their:

Purpose: Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) or Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
Operation: Distance vector protocol, link-state protocol, or path-vector protocol
Behavior: Classful (legacy) or classless protocol
For example, IPv4 routing protocols are classified as follows:

RIPv1 (legacy): IGP, distance vector, classful protocol
IGRP (legacy): IGP, distance vector, classful protocol developed by Cisco (deprecated from 12.2 IOS and later)
RIPv2: IGP, distance vector, classless protocol
EIGRP: IGP, distance vector, classless protocol developed by Cisco
OSPF: IGP, link-state, classless protocol
IS-IS: IGP, link-state, classless protocol
BGP: EGP, path-vector, classless protocol

The data networks that we use in our everyday lives to learn, play, and work range from small, local networks to large, global inter networks. At home, a user may have a router and two or more computers. At work, an organization may have multiple routers and switches servicing the data communication needs of hundreds or even thousands of PCs.

Routers forward packets by using information in the routing table. Routes to remote networks can be learned by the router in two ways: static routes and dynamic routes.

In a large network with numerous networks and subnets , configuring and maintaining static routes between these networks requires a great deal of administrative and operational overhead. This operational overhead is especially cumbersome when changes to the network occur, such as a down link or implementing a new subnet. Implementing dynamic routing protocols can ease the burden of configuration and maintenance tasks and give the network scalability.

This introduces dynamic routing protocols. It explores the benefits of using dynamic routing protocols, how different routing protocols are classified, and the metrics routing protocols use to determine the best path for network traffic. Other topics covered in this chapter include the characteristics of dynamic routing protocols and how the various routing protocols differ. Network professionals must understand the different routing protocols available in order to make informed decisions about when to use static or dynamic routing. They also need to know which dynamic routing protocol is most appropriate in a particular network environment.

I LOVE MY MOM........!

        A Poor Couple lived in a Small Village in India.They had only 1 Son.They gave him the Best Education.Son Graduated as an Engineer in the nearby CityEventually He got Married to a Rich Girl.Initially, They Lived with His Parents in the Village.Soon the Wife got Tired of Village Life & Persuaded Her Husband to Move to the City Leaving His Old Parents in the Village.As Time went,the Husband saw an Ad in the Newspaper about a Job Vacancy in U.S.He was Successful & Lived in U.S for 20 Years with His Wife.Regularly, He used to Send Money to His ParentsEventually with Time, He Stopped & Forgot about His Parents whether they ever Existed.Every Day He Pray & Immediately after each Prayer He used to see Someone telling Him in a Dream that his Prayer is not Accepted.One Day, He Related this Story to a 'Pious Aalim' who Advised Him to go Back to India to Visit His Parents.The Man Flew to India & Reached the Boundary of His Village.Everything was Changed over there.He could not Find His House.So He asked to the Head of the Village about the Whereabouts of His Parents.The Head of the Village directed Him to a House & said: "In this House, Lives an Old Blind Lady who Lost Her Husband a Few Months Ago. She has a Son who Migrated to US 20 Years back & Never came Back again. What an Unfortunate Man." Son enters that Home & Finds His Mother on the Bed.He Tip-Toed as He did not want to Wake Her up.He hears His Mother Whispering or Mumbling Something.He gets Closer to Hear His Mothers Voice.This is what His Mother was Saying: "God ! I am now Very Old & Blind.My Husband just Died.There is no One to Lower Me in My Grave when I Die. So please Send My Son to Fullfill My Last Wish". This is the Ending of a Story where the Prayer of a Mother is Accepted. 

                                            A Human Body can Bear only 45 Del (units) of Pain. But at the Time of Giving Birth, A Mother feels upto 57 Del (units) of Pain. This is similar to 20 Bones getting Fractured, all at the Same Time.This is just to tell U the extent, to which a Mother Loves Her Child. So, Love Ur Mom till the End of Ur Life.The Lady with whom U Fight almost Everyday, Suffered so much Pain just to give U a Beautiful Life.

The Beautiful Lines........

A good leader can engage in a debate frankly and thoroughly, knowing that at the end she/he and the other side must be closer, and thus emerge stronger. And you don't have that idea when you are arrogant, superficial, and uninformed.

CO-INCIDENCE OF LIFE

1.LIFE has 4 letters so does DEAD.

2.HATE  has 4 letters so does LOVE.

3.ENEMIES  has 7 letters so does FRIENDS.

4.LYING  has 5 letters so does TRUTH.

5.HURT  has 4 letters so does HEAL.

6.NEGATIVE  has 8 letters so does POSITIVE.

7.FAILURE  has 7 letters so does SUCCESS.

8.BELOW  has 5 letters so does ABOVE.

9.CRY  has 3 letters so does JOY.

10.ANGER  has 5 letters so does HAPPY.

11.RIGHT  has 5 letters so does WRONG.

12.RICH  has 4 letters so does POOR.

13.FAIL  has 4 letters so does PASS.

14.KNOWLEDGE  has 9 letters so does IGNORANCE.

15.CHURCH has 6 letters so does MOSQUE and TEMPLE.

A Light-Weight and Scalable Network Profiling System

• Long-term network monitoring in high-speed networks requires new ways for collecting, storing and analyzing flow-based network traffic information. A project at the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory looked at alternatives to the conventional flow-based network profiling approach with the objective of improved scalability for high flow rates. The result is a light-weight and scalable network profiling system for NetFlow and IPFIX that is based on a novel time series aggregation database.
• The continuing trend toward distribution of computing resources increases the need to tightly control the networks providing remote access to resources such as servers, storage and databases. An important means for controlling networks is network performance monitoring and, in particular, network profiling. A typical profiling system collects and analyzes information about the traffic flows passing an observation point in the network, eg, a router or traffic meter. A flow is a sequence of packets with common properties (ie, protocol and source/destination addresses/ports).
• In the past, flow-based network profiling has proven to be useful for a number of applications, including network monitoring, billing and planning. To facilitate smooth operation of service access in distributed computing architectures (eg, SANs, computational Grids) the demand for profiling will continue to rise.
• Other network profiling systems have a critical scalability problem regarding the storage, analysis and access of collected profiling information. Indeed, this was the primary motivation for the development of our approach. In high-speed networks with average flow rates of 1,000 flows/s and peak flow rates of as much as 20,000 flows/s, storage for 180 MB/h (3.6 GB/h at peak times) must be provided and maintained. Over longer time periods (ie, months, years), the data accumulates, resulting in an over-loaded system with slow reporting.
Time Series Aggregation Database

• Our profiling approach addresses the scalability problem by using a novel aggregation database (ADB) for time series information. ADB provides a mechanism for efficient incremental storage of primary data values which are associated with time intervals. The database stores data values in groups of circular arrays of decreasing resolution and is, therefore, able to handle large time series data sets with fast access times and limited storage. ADB automatically assures that the array resolution of older data values is lower than the resolution of newer data values. Additionally, great care was taken with the design of ADB in order to reduce memory to disk synchronization and cache the relevant arrays in memory for fast data import and export.
• Array grouping in ADB is efficient for obtaining a sorted view of related parameters. This feature is of great importance in our profiling tool for efficiently displaying sorted lists of top protocols, top hosts, top flows, etc.
• ADB has a built-in array allocation optimization which further reduces the storage requirements. If an array is updated with values of progressing intervals, no preceding array space is allocated because it will never be needed. Furthermore, for insertion of new values, array space is only allocated in fixed chunks in order to avoid allocation of potentially unused array space. These optimizations reduce the required storage allocations considerably for only sparsely filled time series data streams. In network profiling, these optimizations are very useful when, for instance, a dynamically assigned IP address is only observed during a certain time period (eg, a week). In this case, space in a monthly array is only allocated around the actual observation period and not for the entire month.



Implementation

• The developed system is the first profiling system we know of that implements the emerging IETF IPFIX standard. As such it supports IPv6 at data and control plane and can receive flow records over SCTP.
• The reports show traffic information in graphs and tables regarding domains, protocols, QoS tags, hosts/servers, individual flows, packet and flow statistics, port/host scans and other networking aspects. The reporting period can be varied over many time scales. Custom zoom reports regarding specific traffic aspects can be generated on demand.
• A typical problem in network profiling systems is that bursts of high flow rates can be caused by observed port or host scans. In these cases, a single packet may be considered a flow since no other proceeding packet will have the same properties with regard to the source/destination addresses and ports. The rate of the flow export can, under extreme circumstances, even exceed the data rate. Unfortunately, bursts of high flow rates can not only provoke flow table overflows at the observation points but may also render the analysis and storage to be no longer able to keep up with the incoming flow information. For these cases, we added an automatic mechanism to our system to aggregate flow records of a port or host scan into a single record.
  The described profiling system, including the aggregation database (ADB), has been developed over the past two years. The system has been installed at a number of IBM locations and is currently being tested at two European ISPs. Snapshots of sample reports are shown in the figure.

What is a Motherboard?

The motherboard serves to connect all of the parts of a computer together. The CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card and other ports and expansion cards all connect to the motherboard directly or via cables.

The motherboard is the piece of computer hardware that can be thought of as the "back bone" of the PC.

The Motherboard is Also Known As:

mainboard, mobo (abbreviation), MB (abbreviation), system board, logic board

Important Motherboard Facts:

• Desktop motherboards, cases and power supplies all come in different sizes called form factors. All three must be compatible to work properly together.
• Motherboards vary greatly in respect to the types of components they support. For example, each motherboard supports a single type of CPU and a short list of memory types. Additionally, some video cards, hard drives and other peripherals may not be compatible. The motherboard manufacturer should provide clear guidance on component compatibilities.
•  In laptops and tablets, and increasingly even in desktops, the motherboard often incorporates the functions of the video card and sound card. This helps keep these types of computers small in size.
• In a desktop, the motherboard is mounted inside the case, opposite the most easily accessible side. It is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes.
• The front of the motherboard contains ports that all of the internal components connect to. A single socket/slot houses the CPU. Multiple slots allow for one or more memory modules to be attached. Other ports reside on the motherboard which allow the hard drive and optical drive (and floppy drive if present) to connect via data cables.
• Small wires from the front of the computer case connect to the motherboard to allow the power, reset and LED lights to function. Power from the power supply is delivered to the motherboard by use of a specially designed port.
• Also on the front of the motherboard are a number of peripheral card slots. These slots are where most video cards, sound cards and other expansion cards are connected to the motherboard.
• On the left side of the motherboard (the side that faces the back end of the desktop case) are a number of ports. These ports allow most of the computer's external peripherals to connect such as the monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers, network cable and more.
• All modern motherboards also include USB ports here, and increasingly other ports like HDMI and FireWire, that allow compatible devices to connect to your computer when you need them - devices like digital cameras, printers, etc.
• The desktop motherboard and case are designed so that when peripheral cards are used, the sides of the cards fit just outside the back end, making their ports available for use.

Computer-integrated Manufacturing

The term "computer-integrated manufacturing" is both a method of manufacturing and the name of a computer-automated system in which individual engineering, production, marketing, and support functions of a manufacturing enterprise are organized. In a CIM system functional areas such as design, analysis, planning, purchasing, cost accounting, inventory control, and distribution are linked through the computer with factory floor functions such as materials handling and management, providing direct control and monitoring of all the operations.

As a method of manufacturing, three components distinguish CIM from other manufacturing methodologies:

• Means for data storage, retrieval, manipulation and presentation;
• Mechanisms for sensing state and modifying processes;
• Algorithms for uniting the data processing component with the sensor/modification component.

CIM is an example of the implementation of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in manufacturing.

CIM implies that there are at least two computers exchanging information, e.g. the controller of an arm robot and a micro-controller of a CNC machine.

Some factors involved when considering a CIM implementation are the production volume, the experience of the company or personnel to make the integration, the level of the integration into the product itself and the integration of the production processes. CIM is most useful where a high level of ICT is used in the company or facility, such as CAD/CAM systems, the availability of process planning and its data.

There are three major challenges to development of a smoothly operating computer-integrated manufacturing system:

• Integration of components from different suppliers: When different machines, such as CNC, conveyors and robots, are using different communications protocols (In the case of AGVs, even differing lengths of time for charging the batteries) may cause problems.

• Data integrity: The higher the degree of automation, the more critical is the integrity of the data used to control the machines. While the CIM system saves on labor of operating the machines, it requires extra human labor in ensuring that there are proper safeguards for the data signals that are used to control the machines.

• Process control: Computers may be used to assist the human operators of the manufacturing facility, but there must always be a competent engineer on hand to handle circumstances which could not be foreseen by the designers of the control software.

• Subsystems in computer-integrated manufacturing:

  A computer-integrated manufacturing system is not the same as a "lights-out" factory, which would run completely independent of human intervention, although it is a big step in that direction. Part of the system involves flexible manufacturing, where the factory can be quickly modified to produce different products, or where the volume of products can be changed quickly with the aid of computers. Some or all of the following subsystems may be found in a CIM operation:
  Computer-aided techniques:
  • CAD (computer-aided design)
  • CAE (computer-aided engineering)
  • CAM (computer-aided manufacturing)
  • CAPP (computer-aided process planning)
  • CAQ (computer-aided quality assurance)
  • PPC (production planning and control)
  • ERP (enterprise resource planning)
  • A business system integrated by a common database.
  Devices and equipment required:
  • CNC, Computer numerical controlled machine tools
  • DNC, Direct numerical control machine tools
  • PLCs, Programmable logic controllers
  • Robotics
  • Computers
  • Software
  • Controllers
  • Networks
  • Interfacing
  • Monitoring equipment
  Technologies:
• FMS, (flexible manufacturing system)
• ASRS, automated storage and retrieval system
• AGV, automated guided vehicle
• Robotics
• Automated conveyance systems
• There are multiple areas of usage:
  • In Industrial and Production engineering
  • In mechanical engineering
  • In electronic design automation (printed circuit board (PCB) and integrated circuit design data for manufacturing)

List of computer term etymologies:

1)Abend —
Originally from an IBM System/360 error message,BEEB short for "abnormal end".
2)Booting or Bootstaraping —
           Loading or fetching the OS to the memory for processing while the the system starts.
3) Cookie —
A packet of information that travels between a browser and the web server.
4)Daemon —
A process in an operating system that runs in the background.It is falsely considered an acronym for       Disk And Execution Monitor.
5)Ethernet —
A computer networking technology.
6)Finger —
Unix command that provides information about users logged into a system.

7) Gopher —
An early distributed document search and retrieval network protocol on the Internet.
8)Hotmail —
Free email service, now part of MSN. The idea of accessing email via the web from a  computer anywhere in the world.
9) ID10T -
Pronounced "ID ten T" - is a code frequently used by a customer service representative  (CSR) to annotate their notes and identify the source of a problem as the person who is reporting  the problem rather than the system being blamed. This is a thinly veiled reference to the CSR's  opinion that the person reporting the problem is an IDIOT. Example: Problem reported caused by    ID10T, no resolution possible

10)Jakarta Project —
A project constituted by Sun and Apache to create a web server for Java servlets and JSPs.Jakarta was the name of the conference room at Sun where most of the meetings between Sun and Apache took place.
11)Kerberos —
A computer network authentication protocol that is used by both Windows 2000 and Windows XP as their default authentication method.
12)liveware -
computer personnel.It play on the terms "software" and "hardware". Coined in 1966,
the word indicates that sometimes the computer problem is not with the computer itself, but with user.
13) Macintosh, Mac —
  A personal computer from Apple Computer.From McIntosh, a popular type of apple.
14)Nerd —
A colloquial term for a computer person, especially an obsessive, singularly focused one.
15)OLIVER -
CICS interactive test/debug software.The name of this online interactive software - that prevented CICS system abends caused by application programs.
16)ping —
a computer network tool used to detect hosts.
17)Query string —
In the World Wide Web, is an optional part of a Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
18) RSA —
An asymmetricalgorithm for public key cryptography.
19)SPIM —
A simulator for a virtual machine closely resembling the instruction set of MIPS processor,  is simply MIPS spelled backwards. In recent time, spim has also come to mean SPam sent over Instant Messaging.
20)Trojan horse —
A malicious program that is disguised as legitimate software.
21)Unix —
an operating system.
22)Virus —
a piece of program code that spreads by making copies of itself.
23)Worm —
a self-replicating program, similar to a virus.
24)X Window System —
a windowing system for computers with bitmap displays.
25)Yahoo —
internet portal and web directory.
26)zip —
a file format, also used as a verb to mean compress.

OPEN SOURCE-Innovation communities

• The principle of sharing pre-dates the open-source movement; for example, the free sharing of information has been institutionalized in the scientific enterprise since at least the 19th century. Open-source principles have always been part of the scientific community. The sociologist Robert K. Merton described the four basic elements of the community – universalism (an international perspective), communalism (sharing information), disinterestedness (removing one's personal views from the scientific inquiry) and organized skepticism (requirements of proof and review) that accurately describe the scientific community today.
• These principles are, in part, complemented by US law's focus on protecting expression and method but not the ideas themselves. There is also a tradition of publishing research results to the scientific community instead of keeping all such knowledge proprietary. One of the recent initiatives in scientific publishing has been open access – the idea that research should be published in such a way that it is free and available to the public. There are currently many open access journals where the information is available free online, however most journals do charge a fee (either to users or libraries for access). The Budapest Open Access Initiative is an international effort with the goal of making all research articles available free on the Internet.
• The National Institutes of Health has recently proposed a policy on "Enhanced Public Access to NIH Research Information." This policy would provide a free, searchable resource of NIH-funded results to the public and with other international repositories six months after its initial publication. The NIH's move is an important one because there is significant amount of public funding in scientific research. Many of the questions have yet to be answered – the balancing of profit vs. public access, and ensuring that desirable standards and incentives do not diminish with a shift to open access.
• Farmavita.Net is a community of pharmaceuticals executives that has recently proposed a new business model of open-source pharmaceuticals.The project is targeted to development and sharing of know-how for manufacture of essential and life-saving medicines. It is mainly dedicated to the countries with less developed economies where local pharmaceutical research and development resources are insufficient for national needs. It will be limited to generic (off-patent) medicines with established use. By the definition, medicinal product have a "well-established use" if is used for at least 15 years, with recognized efficacy and an acceptable level of safety. In that event, the expensive clinical test and trial results could be replaced by appropriate scientific literature.
• Benjamin Franklin was an early contributor eventually donating all his inventions including the Franklin stove, bifocals, and the lightning rod to the public domain.
• New NGO communities are starting to use the open-source technology as a tool. One example is the Open Source Youth Network started in 2007 in Lisboa by ISCA members.
• Open innovation is also a new emerging concept which advocate putting R&D in a common pool. The Eclipse platform is openly presenting itself as an Open innovation network.

GNU/LINUX NAMING CONTROVERSY

The GNU/Linux naming controversy is a dispute among members of the free and open source software community over how to refer to the computer operating system commonly called Linux.
GNU/Linux is a term promoted by the Free Software Foundation (FSF), its founder Richard Stallman, and its supporters, for operating systems that include GNU software and the Linux kernel.The FSF argues for the term GNU/Linux because GNU was a longstanding project to develop a free operating system, of which they say the kernel was the last missing piece.

Proponents of the Linux term dispute GNU/Linux for a number of reasons, such as the fact that the term Linux is far more commonly used by the public and media.

Plans for GNU, a complete computer operating system composed entirely of free software, were made in 1983 by Richard Stallman, founder of the Free Software Foundation. In September of that year, Stallman published his manifesto in Dr. Dobb's Journal detailing his new project publicly, and outlining his vision of free software.Software development work began in January 1984. GNU was to be a complete Unix-like operating system composed entirely of free software. By 1991, the GNU mid-level portions of the operating system were almost complete, and the upper level could be supplied by the X Window System, but the lower level (kernel, device drivers, system-level utilities and daemons) was still mostly lacking. The GNU kernel, GNU Hurd, was still in its infancy. The Hurd followed an ambitious design which proved unexpectedly difficult to implement and has only been marginally usable.

In 1991, the first version of the Linux kernel was released by Linus Torvalds. Early Linux kernel developers ported GNU code, including the GNU C Compiler, to run on Linux. Later, when the GNU developers learned of Linux, they adapted other parts of GNU to run on the Linux kernel. This work filled the remaining gaps in running a completely free operating system.

Over the next few years, there were a number of suggestions for how to name operating systems using the Linux kernel and GNU components. In 1992, the Yggdrasil Linux distribution adopted the name "Linux/GNU/X". In Usenet and mailing-list discussions, one can find usages of "GNU/Linux" as early as 1992 and of "GNU+Linux" as early as 1993. The Debian project switched to calling itself "GNU/Linux" in early 1994 During this time it was sponsored by the Free Software Foundation's GNU Project. Debian founder Ian Murdock later noted that this change was made in response to a request by Richard Stallman (who initially proposed "Lignux," but suggested "GNU/Linux" instead after hearing complaints about the awkwardness of the former term). GNU's June 1994 Bulletin describes "Linux" as a "free Unix system for 386 machines" (with "many of the utilities and libraries" from GNU), but the January 1995 Bulletin switched to the term "GNU/Linux" instead.

Stallman's and the FSF's efforts to include "GNU" in the name started around 1994, but were reportedly mostly via private communications (such as the abovementioned request to Debian) until 1996 In May 1996, Stallman released Emacs 19.31 with the Autoconf system target "linux" changed to "lignux" (shortly thereafter changed to "linux-gnu" in emacs 19.32),[citation needed] and included an essay "Linux and the GNU system"[citation needed] suggesting that people use the terms "Linux-based GNU system" (or "GNU/Linux system" or "Lignux" for short). He later used "GNU/Linux" exclusively, and the essay was superseded by Stallman's 1997 essay, "Linux and the GNU project".

Microsoft Student Associates Program #MSAIndia”.

Hai Everyone,
                        This is Natesanathan.K doing my Final year B.E., Computer Science in Anjalai Ammal Mahalingam Engineering College, Kovilvenni , Tiruvarur District.
           
             Here by i have to share some information or impacts about Microsoft which changes me in a great manner .In my childhood days till my higher secondary i didn't know any knowledge about windows even a computer but once i get it in to it which makes me a tremendous change to make me much interest of it to knowing all about it. In my past day I like to use MS paint to do some fun activities for just a entertainment work but later i had to knows that it not  entertainment one but will make a more effect to the computer world of designing.
                       The Microsoft had provided lot of different versions of Operating System which consists of unique properties respectively .The OS such as Windows7(professional, Ultimate),Vista, Windows Diamond, WindowsXp,Windows8,Windows8.1 all these are which makes the major changes to all who are in computer world. I have been used all these OS which helps me in learning more things in the computer world to do something innovatively and of thinking as much more to survive a lot.  
                  One of the great things about Working at Microsoft is having access to an incredible array of technologies that help us to get work done. And in the field of designing, imaging, movie making etc. which the windows played a wide role. In multimedia it helps me till my childhood days to do or think something different as i can in my life, which makes my people to get a lot of interest to knowing about it their carrier as i did till my days.
                   And i had learned about MS office which supported me all ways to survive in my studies as well as in my day to day life too. The MS Excel which is used to store record in a order and to maintain a efficient work of maintaining logs. The MS word which helps me in documentation process and even of preparing leave letter just a example to it. And the most important thing which plays a major role is preparing slides by using MS PowerPoint which helps to express the content easier to user as well as to the viewers through slides. It consists of lot of designing tools which makes the understating of contents easier than by books.    
                    There is lot of things to tell about Micr

osoft which changes my life in the computer world. And there is still more of innovating in the windows which could also make tremendous changes in the computer world. And they had introduced the Tabs and windows phones which had spreader all over the world in these days. All peoples are using Tabs for their comfort ability. And now days all people were using windows phones for conveniences and better use of bringing all features as it is in the computers.  And it consists of lot features supported by their logical and technical architecture to all the systems in these days which play a major role in human with the computer.  
                     In the future i would bring more use of it to my people of knowing these thing from their childhood days and make use of it to get well minded in it and to get a good scope in it to survive as more in the computer world along with Microsoft.

What is Linux?

What is Linux?

Linux is a high performance, yet completely free operating system that closely resembles UNIX. An operating system is the main software that operates on a computer.

UNIX was originally developed by Ken Thompson at Bell Labs, the legendary research arm of AT&T (the former U.S. telecommunications monopoly) in 1969 and was substantially improved at the University of California at Berkeley (UCB) during the 1970s and 1980s. Many variations were subsequently developed, and they are collectively referred to as Unix-like operating systems. Unix-like operating systems are widely regarded as the best operating systems ever created in terms of several criteria, including stability, security, flexibility, scalability and elegance.

Linux was started in 1991 by Linus Torvalds, then a student at the University of Helsinki in Finland, because of his dissatisfaction with MS-DOS and his desire to obtain a free version of UNIX for his new computer. Linux quickly became a global project with programmers from around the world participating in its development via the Internet. Its performance has improved continuously, and this has been paralleled by the swift growth in its usage around the world by individuals, corporations, educational institutions and governments.

Linux is superior to other Unix-like operating systems in several respects. One is that it is completely free, in contrast to the costly proprietary (i.e., commercial) versions of UNIX. It is free both in a monetary sense (i.e., that it can be obtained by anybody at no cost) and in the sense that anyone is permitted to use it for any purpose (including making as many copies as desired for personal or business use, using it on any number of computers, modifying it in any way desired, giving away copies of the original or modified versions, and even selling such copies for a profit!). Software that is free in all of these senses is referred to as free software or open source software.

This freedom is made possible by the fact that Linux is released under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GNU project was begun by Richard Stallman in 1983 for the purpose of developing a completely free, high performance, Unix-like operating system. It has provided many of the most critical utility programs for Linux, and thus it is sometimes suggested that the most appropriate name for Linux is GNU/Linux.

Another advantage of Linux is that it can operate on a much wider range of hardware than most other operating systems. It can run on notebook computers, desktop computers, workstations, mainframes, supercomputers, handheld devices (including some cell phones), game machines, industrial robots and even a wristwatch!

Microsoft Windows is still the most widely used family of computer operating systems. However, Linux offers also some important advantages over them, and thus its worldwide growth rate is much faster. These advantages include the facts tha  it is free, it is extremely stable (i.e., it rarely crashes),  it is highly resistant to computer viruses, spyware and other malware,  a large amount of high quality, completely free application programs are available for use on it and it can run on older computers that cannot accommodate the newer versions of Microsoft Windows. A more complete list of advantages can be found in the article 25 Reasons to Convert to Linux.

How to Install a New Operating System on Your Computer..!

1)Determining Which Operating System to Install
2)Installing Your New Operating System
3)Installing Specific Operating Systems

Method 1 of 3: Determining Which Operating System to Install

1. 
   1
   Check the system requirements. If you’ve decided that you want to install a new operating system, you’ll first need to figure out which one you want to use. Operating systems have varying system requirements, so if you have an older computer, make sure that you can handle a newer operating system.
   • Most Windows installations require at least 1 GB of RAM, and at least 15-20 GB of hard disk space. Make sure that your computer can accommodate this. If not, you may need to install an older operating system, such as Windows XP.
   • Linux operating systems typically don’t require as much space and computing power as Windows operating systems. The requirements vary depending on the distribution you choose (Ubuntu, Fedora)
2. 2
   Decide whether to purchase or download. Windows licenses need to be purchased. Each license comes with a key good for one installation. Most Linux distributions are free to download and install as much as you’d like, though some Enterprise versions are closed and require purchase (Red Hat, SUSE, etc.).
3. 3
   Research your software compatibility. Make sure that the operating system you want to install supports the programs that you want to use. If you use Microsoft Office for work, you won’t be able to install it on a Linux machine. There are substitute programs available, but the functionality may be limited.
   • Many games that work on Windows will not work on Linux. The number of supported titles is growing, but be aware that if you are an avid gamer your library might not transfer over smoothly.
4. 4
   Obtain your new operating system. If you’ve purchased a copy of Windows from a store, you should have received an installation disc along with your product code. If you don’t have the disc, but have a valid code, you can download a copy of the disc online. If you are installing Linux, you can download an ISO of the distribution from the developer’s website.
   • An ISO file is a disc image that needs to be burned to a disc or copied to abootable USB drive
5. 5
   Backup your data. When you are installing a new operating system, you are most likely going to be wiping the hard drive in the process. This means that you will lose all of your files on the computer, unless you back them up. Always make sure that any important files are copied to a backup location before starting the installation process. Use an external hard drive or burn the data to DVDs.
   • If you are installing the operating system alongside your existing one, you most likely will not have to delete any data. It is still wise to backup important files just in case.
   • You cannot backup programs; they will need to be reinstalled once you have finished installing your new operating system.

Method 2 of 3: Installing Your New Operating System

1. 1
   Determine your installation order. If you are installing a Linux distribution that you want to run alongside Windows, you need to install Windows first and then Linux. This is because Windows has a very strict boot loader that needs to be in place before Linux is installed, otherwise Windows won’t load.
2. 
   2
   Boot from your installation disc. Insert the installation disc into your optical; drive, and reboot your computer. Normally a computer boots from the hard drive first, so you will need to adjust some settings in your BIOS in order to boot from the disc drive. You can enter the BIOS by hitting the designated Setup key during the boot process. The key will be displayed on the same screen as your manufacturer’s logo.
   • Common Setup keys include F2, F10, F12, and Del/Delete.
   • Once you are in the Setup menu, navigate to the Boot section. Set your DVD/CD drive as the first boot device. If you are installing from a USB drive, make sure that the drive is inserted and then select it as the first boot device.
   • Once you’ve selected the correct drive, save your changes and exit Setup. Your computer will reboot.
3. 3
   Try your Linux distribution before installing. Most Linux distributions come with a copy that can be loaded directly from the installation disc. This will allow you to “test drive” your new operating system before you commit to the installation process. Once you are ready to install, click the Installation program on the desktop.
   • This is only possible with Linux distributions. Windows does not allow you to test out the operating system before you install.
4. 4
   Wait for the Setup program to load. No matter which operating system you choose, the setup program will need to copy some files to your computer before it can continue. This can take several minutes, depending on the speed of your computer’s hardware.
   • You will most likely need to choose some basic options, such as language and keyboard layout.
5. 5
   Enter your product key. If you are installing Windows 8, you will need to enter your product key before you can begin installation. Older Windows versions will ask for the product key after installation is complete. Linux users will not need a product key, unless it is a purchased version such as Red Hat.
6. 6
   Choose your installation type. Windows will give you the option of Upgrading or performing a Custom installation. Even if you are upgrading an older version of Windows, it is highly recommended that you choose Custom and start from scratch. This will minimize problems that may arise later from combining old settings and new ones.
   • If you are installing Linux, you will be given the option to install alongside your existing operating system (Windows), or to erase the disk and install Linux by itself. Choose the option that best meets your needs. If you choose to install alongside Windows, you will be given the option to choose how much hard disk space you want to designate for Linux.
7. 7
   Format your partitions. If you are installing Windows, you will need to choose which hard drive partition you want to install it on. Deleting partitions will wipe the data on the partition and return the space to the Unallocated section. Select the unallocated space and create a new partition.
   • If you are installing Linux, the partition needs to be formatted in the Ext4 format.
8. 8
   Set your Linux options. Before installation begins, your Linux installer will ask you for your timezone, and you will need to create a username and password. You will use this to log in to your Linux distribution as well as authorize system changes.
   • Windows users will fill out personal information after the installation is complete.
9. 9
   Wait for the installation to complete. Depending on the speed of your computer, this can take up to an hour to finish. Most installations are hands-off at this point. Your computer may reboot several times during the installation process.
10. 10
    Create your Windows login. Once your Windows installation is complete, you will need to create a username. You can also choose to create a password, though this is not necessary. After creating your login info, you will be asked for your product key.
    • In Windows 8, you will be asked to customize the colors first. After that, you can choose to either log in with a Microsoft account, or use a more traditional Windows username.
11. 11
    Install your drivers and programs. Once installation is complete, you will be taken to your new desktop. Forom here, you can begin installing your programs and making sure that your drivers are installed an up to date. Make sure to install anantivirus program if you are going to be connecting to the internet.
12. Method 3 of 3: Installing Specific Operating Systems

1. 1
   Install Windows 7. Windows 7 is currently Microsoft’s most popular operating system. Follow this guide for specific instructions.
2. 2
   Install Windows 8. Windows 8 is Microsoft’s newest operating system. Click here for a detailed guide on the installation process.
3. 3
   Install Ubuntu. Ubuntu is one of the most popular distributions of Linux available. Click for step-by-step instructions for installing the Ubuntu distribution.
4. 4
   Install Mac OS X. If you want to upgrade your copy of Mac OS X, check out this guide.
5. 5
   Install Linux Mint. Linux Mint is a newer Linux distribution that is quickly increasing in popularity. Follow this guide to learn how to install it.
6. 6
   Install Fedora. Fedora is an older Linux distribution that has a long history of stability. This guide will show you how to install it.
7. 7
   Install Mac OS X on an Intel or AMD computer (Hackintosh). If you’ve got some patience and the desire to install Mac OS X on your PC, check out this guide.